Given the remarkable growth in the prevalence of kidney disease, its deficient diagnosis and treatment and poor clinical outcomes with heavy medical burden, the China Kidney Innovation Association (CKIA) summarized and refined the "Top Ten Innovative Directions" in the field of kidney disease, aiming to address urgent clinical pain points and conduct in-depth analysis in the diagnosis, treatment, and research of kidney disease. This work is based on innovative, prospective, scientific and feasible principles. Through extensive collection, in-depth discussions, and rigorous research, the expert group have condensed ten innovative research directions covering innovative diagnostic technologies, precision treatment methods and cutting-edge research approaches, in an effort to provide clear guidance and direction for future innovative research and transformation in kidney disease.

Sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (SA-AKI) is defined as the presence of acute kidney injury (AKI) in the context of sepsis. In the setting of genetic susceptibility, sepsis can lead to SA-AKI through various mechanisms. Based on differences in pathophysiological mechanisms, SA-AKI is categorized into different "endotypes" and manifests as distinct "subtypes". The combination of biomarkers and predictive models has the potential to early identify high-risk AKI patients and elucidate SA-AKI "endotypes". Volume resuscitation and blood purification are optimized strategies for SA-AKI treatment. Furthermore, clinical research on SA-AKI in children is promising.

Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) are commonly used drugs in the treatment of renal anemia. There are currently two types of ESAs available to clinicians, including short-acting ESAs and long-acting ESAs. Short-acting ESAs have been used for decades in China, which are being widely accepted nowadays. Several professional societies have published consensus guidelines for the use and interpretation of short-acting ESAs worldwide in recent years. The advantages of long-acting ESAs include long half-life, low infusion frequency, good patient compliance, etc. There is still a lack of guidance on the clinical use of long-acting ESAs although important progress of long-acting ESAs has been made in clinical trials in recent years. Thus, the Society of Nephrology & Dialysis of China Non-Government Medical Institutions Association organized relevant experts to jointly formulate the "Chinese Expert Consensus on Long-acting ESAs in the Treatment of Renal Anemia". This consensus mainly introduces the classification, mechanism of action and pharmacological characteristics of long-acting ESAs, their indications, timing, administration protocols, application in special populations, adverse reactions and management in renal anemia. It is the hope of this concensus will guide the clinical use of long-acting ESAs in the treatment of renal anemia.

Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) is an important treatment for critically ill patients. Critically ill patients often need to receive antimicrobials and CRRT treatments at the same time. CRRT affects the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of antimicrobials, and there is a lack of recommendations and suggestions for the antimicrobial dosing during CRRT. The clinical medicine, pharmacy, intensive care and infectious diseases specialists in China set up an expert group on antimicrobial dosing optimization during CRRT, conducted evidence search around CRRT factors, drug characteristics, patient factors and antimicrobial dosing optimization during CRRT, and fully discussed and formulated the consensus, to provide guiding advices on the rational use of antimicrobials during CRRT.

Recent studies have revealed that fluid overload is an independent risk factor for increasing renal function impairment, decreasing renal recovery rate and increasing mortality in severe patients with acute kidney injury (AKI), acute respiratory distress syndrome,or sepsis. The damage of fluid overload on renal function may be related to renal venous hypertension and renal interstitial edema, and eventually lead to the decrease of renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. However, fluid clearance with diuretics or continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) may increase the risk of hypovolemia, hemodynamic instability, and tissue and organ hypoperfusion. Therefore, accurate fluid volume status assessment and management in AKI patients during CRRT is critical. The expert group of Chinese Society of Nephrology formulated this expert consensus on fluid volume assessment and management in CRRT based on evidence-based medical evidence and clinical experience. Through systematic and comprehensive literature search, data analysis and professional discussion in this field, the expert group constructed five special topics on fluid volume management in CRRT: the pathophysiological basis and harm of fluid volume imbalance in AKI patients, the management strategies on fluid volume in AKI patients, the assessment on fluid volume status and reactivity in AKI patients, the grading and application of fluid volume management in CRRT, and the management target and prescription on fluid volume in CRRT. This consensus aims to standardize clinical operations, reduce the incidence of fluid volume imbalances in AKI patients, and improve the patients' prognosis.

Relapsing is the clinical characteristic of nephrotic syndrome (NS) in children, and some steroid-sensitive NS (SSNS) children have frequently relapsing NS and steroid-dependent NS. The long-term and frequent uses of glucocorticoids, as well as the adverse effects of immunosuppressants, seriously affect the quality of life in children with NS. The International Pediatric Nephrology Association released the clinical practice recommendation for SSNS in children in 2022. Based on the guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of steroid-sensitive, frequently- relapsing/dependent NS in children (2016) formulated by the Nephrology Group of Pediatrics Society of Chinese Medical Association, we interpreted the guideline on clinical treatment and management suggestions of SSNS, to provide references for the diagnosis and treatment of SSNS in children.

Sodium-glucose transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a novel type of oral hypoglycemic agent. Clinical trials have found that these drugs not only help control diabetes but also provide additional benefits for heart and kidney outcome. They have shown cardiorenal protection in patients with type 2 diabetes and can improve outcomes in non-diabetic patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and the overall safety performance is good. Therefore, SGLT2 inhibitors have become important drugs for cardiorenal protection in CKD patients. The consensus expert group undertook an extensive process to develop this consensus on the use of SGLT2 inhibitor drugs in managing CKD. They engaged multidisciplinary experts from nephrology, endocrinology, and cardiology to ensure a comprehensive and standardized approach. The expert group utilized existing evidence-based evidence and the expertise of the participating clinicians to formulate this consensus through consultation, voting and discussion. The consensus includes the recommended population for SGLT2 inhibitors use, the risk assessment of adverse reactions before use, the recommendation of combination administration, and the monitoring and management of adverse reactions during use. This collaborative effort aims to provide physicians with a reliable and practical framework for the rational use of SGLT2 inhibitor drugs in clinical practice.

Diabetes is a major risk factor for chronic kidney disease (CKD). Finerenone, a novel nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, has been confirmed to have a definite renal and cardiovascular protective effect on diabetes mellitus with CKD. Long-term use can significantly reduce the urinary albumin to creatinine ratio in patients with diabetes mellitus and has little effect on blood potassium. In order to make the clinical application of finerenone more reasonable and standardized, based on research evidence and clinical practice experience, the expert group formed the Chinese expert consensus on the use of finerenone in patients with diabetes mellitus and CKD after many discussions. The mechanism of action and pharmacological properties of finerenone, evidence-based medical evidence, suitable population, specific usage and precautions were described, and 27 recommendations were formed to provide reference for clinical use of finerenone and benefit patients.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a systemic disease including pneumonia caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The COVID-19 infects several organs and systems besides the respiratory system, including the urinary system, cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal system, nervous system, hematological system and immune system. The kidney, as one of the targeted organs of COVID-19, is damaged by SARS-CoV-2 in both direct and indirect ways. The clinical manifestations of kidney involvements include acute kidney injury (AKI), proteinuria, hematuria, etc. Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are often combined with a variety of immunodeficiency, especially those receiving hormones/immunosuppressants for immune nephropathy, kidney transplantation, undergoing renal replacement therapy for end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Moreover, these patients are not only susceptible to SARS-CoV-2, but also prone to becoming seriously or critically ill after infection. The treatment of CKD patients with COVID-19 is different from that of non-CKD patients, and the use of antiviral drugs in patients with severe renal insufficiency remains controversial. Furthermore, CKD patients are often combined with malnutrition, hypercoagulability, chronic inflammation, and water-electrolyte disorders, which make treatment of COVID-19 difficult. Therefore, this expert consensus was developed to enhance the clinicians' awareness of CKD with COVID-19, standardize the clinical diagnosis and treatment, and further improve the prognosis of patients.

In recent years, the incidence rate of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in China has increased year by year. About 2% of patients enter ESKD every year. Peritoneal dialysis (PD) has been widely used in ESKD patients all over the world, especially in developing countries, because of its simple, safe, effective and home based treatment. Since continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis was introduced to China in 1978, Chinese nephrology professionals have made remarkable achievements in PD management after decades of joint efforts. However, they still face many challenges. In order to investigate the status of quality indicators of PD centers, the construction of centers, PD prescriptions and adjustments, diagnosis and treatment of complications, adequacy assessment, long-term follow-up status of patients, disease burden and risk perception of chronic kidney disease in China, the project group of the white paper carried out three rounds of questionnaires nationwide, objectively and comprehensively analyzed the survey results, and organized experts to prepare the white paper. The white paper clearly reviewed the current situation of PD construction and management in China, and also found some problems that need to be solved. It still needs to further standardize the staffing of PD centers, strengthen the training of PD professionals, expand the full-time medical staff, pay attention to quality management, reduce the incidence of PD related complications, and improve the long-term survival rate and quality of life of PD patients.

连续性肾脏替代治疗（continuous renal replacement therapy，CRRT）是一项持续的血液净化技术，血液经过体外循环时可导致血小板活化并激活内源性、外源性凝血途径导致体外循环凝血发生，不仅导致CRRT治疗中断、治疗效率下降、血细胞消耗，而且导致血管通路并发症增加、医疗费用增加及医源性感染的风险增加。因此，安全有效的抗凝策略在CRRT过程中显得尤为关键。故而，中华医学会肾脏病学分会成立了CRRT抗凝管理指南工作组。指南工作组通过对此领域文献的系统全面检索、数据分析及专业讨论，从CRRT抗凝评估与监测、局部枸橼酸抗凝CRRT、系统性抗凝CRRT及无抗凝剂CRRT 4个方面构建了CRRT的抗凝管理指南。该指南基于CRRT抗凝的循证医学证据及临床经验，有利于规范CRRT抗凝技术，减少CRRT患者的抗凝相关并发症，延长体外循环寿命。

腹膜透析（peritoneal dialysis，PD）相关性腹膜炎（PD-associated peritonitis，PDAP）是PD的严重并发症，防治PDAP对降低患者的发病率和病死率至关重要。近期发布的2022版国际腹膜透析协会（International Society for Peritoneal Dialysis，ISPD）有关PDAP防治指南中，对于难治性腹膜炎（refractory peritonitis）、再发性腹膜炎（recurrent peritonitis）、复发性腹膜炎（relapsing peritonitis）、重现性腹膜炎（repeat peritonitis）、腹膜炎相关导管拔除（peritonitis-associated catheter removal）、腹膜炎相关转血液透析（peritonitis-associated haemodialysis transfer）、腹膜炎相关死亡（peritonitis-associated death）、腹膜炎相关住院（peritonitis-associated hospitalisation）等概念均赋以明确定义，提出了一些新的腹膜炎类型和预后概念，如PD前腹膜炎（pre-PD peritonitis）、肠源性腹膜炎（enteric peritonitis）、导管相关性腹膜炎（catheter-related peritonitis）及腹膜炎的临床治愈（medical cure）。新指南建议PDAP的总体发生风险应低于0.4例次/患者年，每年无腹膜炎患者占比应高于80%。对于PD系统污染的处理、侵入性操作的抗生素预防、PD培训与再评估以及腹膜炎可预防的风险因素如豢养宠物、H2受体拮抗剂等热点问题均在新指南中给予了阐释。经验性抗生素的选择和剂量，及针对特殊病原菌口服N-乙酰半胱氨酸辅助减轻氨基糖苷类耳毒性的新方法也在新指南中进行了介绍。最后，指南对未来腹膜炎防治的研究方向给出了建议。

免疫性肾小球疾病是导致终末期肾病的主要原因之一。除了传统的糖皮质激素及免疫抑制治疗方案外，生物制剂越来越多地应用于免疫性肾小球疾病的临床治疗，显著改善了患者的临床症状及生存质量，为这类疾病的靶向治疗带来了曙光。然而，生物制剂在免疫性肾小球疾病中的应用尚缺乏统一的规范，制定既符合国际指南标准又贴近中国临床实践的免疫性肾小球疾病生物制剂治疗共识势在必行。为此，我国肾脏病领域专家依据国内外研究数据和临床经验，结合中国肾脏疾病患者的特点，在深入讨论的基础上制定了本共识。本共识内容包括免疫性肾小球疾病的分类及其发病机制，常用生物制剂及其作用机制，生物制剂的应用原则与方法、疗效与安全性、患者的选择与监测、常见问题与对策以及特殊人群应用的注意事项等方面，以期为临床医师提供具体的指导意见。

高甘油三酯血症（hypertriglyceridemia，HTG，亦称高三酰甘油血症）是慢性肾脏病（chronic kidney disease，CKD）患者最常见的异常脂代谢类型，可加速CKD进展，且与心血管疾病的剩留风险密切相关，但肾科医师对于如何管理CKD合并HTG缺乏共识，存在未满足的临床需求。鉴于此，专家组参考国内外最新文献，根据中国临床诊疗特点，围绕HTG病理生理，HTG对CKD合并心血管疾病的影响，HTG诊断、治疗以及特殊人群管理等内容制定了此共识。本共识是我国首个指导CKD患者HTG管理的专家共识，旨在引起广大肾科医师重视，为我国CKD患者HTG的规范化诊治提供指导性建议。

糖尿病肾脏疾病（diabetic kidney disease，DKD）是糖尿病的常见慢性并发症，也是慢性肾脏病（chronic kidney disease，CKD）和终末期肾病（end-stage renal disease，ESRD）的重要原因。明晰DKD的诊断、鉴别诊断以及对疾病进展风险的评估有助于对患者的分层管理和个体化治疗。白蛋白尿和估算肾小球滤过率（estimated glomerular filtration rate，eGFR）是DKD的主要诊断依据，而新型生物标志物在辅助DKD诊断和预后评估方面亦显现出重要价值。目前，临床实践中关于DKD诊断、预后评估及生物标志物的认识尚存在不足。为此，基于国内外DKD临床研究进展，中华医学会肾脏病学分会组织有关专家制定了这部共识，目的是加强相关从业人员、尤其是基层医务人员在临床实践中对DKD诊断、预后评估和生物标志物的认识，改善DKD的防治水平。

托伐普坦（tolvaptan）已被多个国家批准用于常染色体显性多囊肾病（autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease，ADPKD）的治疗，并实现了国产化。为帮助国内肾科医师有效、安全地使用托伐普坦治疗ADPKD患者，专家组依托已有文献结合国内ADPKD患者诊疗现状编写了本部共识，以供临床医师实践参考。共识首先描述ADPKD及快速进展型ADPKD的诊断方法与标准，概述ADPKD一般治疗与对症治疗，进而详细阐述了托伐普坦治疗ADPKD的适应证与禁忌证、个体化治疗前评估与剂量滴定办法、药物不良反应及处置办法、联合用药注意事项及终止治疗时机，总结了规范化应用托伐普坦治疗ADPKD的全流程。该共识的制定将有助于提高肾科医师应用托伐普坦治疗ADPKD的规范化和有效性，有助于提高患者治疗的依从性和安全性。

慢性肾脏病（chronic kidney disease，CKD）已成为全球性的公共卫生问题。“肾脏病预后质量倡议（Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative，KDOQI）”和“改善全球肾脏病预后组织（Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes，KDIGO）”工作组先后制定了CKD 临床实践指南。为提高我国CKD防治水平，在参考国外指南基础上，结合中国特点，我们组织上海市肾脏病专家制定了《CKD筛查 诊断及防治指南》，并于2017年发表。该指南对各级全科医师和肾脏病专科医师均有参考价值，有力推动了对CKD的认识和提高了对CKD的管理水平。近年来CKD 研究又取得了很多重大进展，基于临床证据的积累及各种新药的问世，上海市肾内科临床质量控制中心专家组对2017年版《CKD筛查 诊断及防治指南》进行了更新和修订，内容主要包括CKD筛查的对象和方式、进展的评估及防治等方面。

心力衰竭（heart failure）是透析（dialysis）患者的第二大心血管疾病。透析患者一旦合并心力衰竭，生存率显著下降。尽管国内外已颁布了多部普通人群心力衰竭相关的临床指南或专家共识，但由于透析患者肾功能极差甚至没有残余肾功能、慢性并发症多，加上血液透析（hemodialysis，HD）和腹膜透析（peritoneal dialysis，PD）治疗本身的特殊性、可变性及局限性，使透析患者与普通人群在心力衰竭诊断、治疗及管理等方面均存在很大的不同。故而现有国内外指南和共识并不完全适用于透析人群，迫切需要透析患者心力衰竭管理的指导性文件，以指导、规范心力衰竭的诊疗。鉴于此，中华医学会肾脏病学分会和中关村肾病血液净化创新联盟组织专家组制定了这部《中国透析患者慢性心力衰竭管理指南》。该指南基于循证医学证据及临床经验，就心力衰竭诊断、危险因素管理、HD管理、PD管理、药物管理及其他管理等问题做了系统的介绍，反映了当今透析患者心力衰竭诊疗的新观点及未来发展趋势，有利于进一步加强临床医生对透析患者心力衰竭的认识、规范透析患者心力衰竭的临床管理流程，对改善透析患者预后具有重要价值。

随着影像技术的不断发展，碘对比剂在介入治疗、血管造影等领域的应用日益增多。虽然碘对比剂的临床应用大大提高了疾病的诊疗水平，但其引起的急性肾损伤不容忽视。为降低碘对比剂诱导的急性肾损伤的发生率，中华医学会临床药学分会、中国药学会医院药学专业委员会和中华医学会肾脏病学分会组织国内专家，成立《碘对比剂诱导的急性肾损伤防治的专家共识》编写委员会，在参考国内外相关指南、共识及研究进展的基础上，结合我国的实际情况，针对碘对比剂的结构和分类、已上市的碘对比剂品种及理化性质、碘对比剂的应用现状、碘对比剂诱导的急性肾损伤的定义、流行病学、生物标志物、病理特征、危险因素与风险评估、预防措施和治疗手段等方面进行证据检索和评价，并充分讨论，制定了本共识，为临床医、药、护、技更有效、更安全地合理使用碘对比剂提供指导建议。

利妥昔单抗（rituximab，RTX）是一种作用于B细胞表面CD20分子的人鼠嵌合单克隆抗体，靶向诱导B细胞凋亡，减少自身抗体的产生，对系统性红斑狼疮、肾小球肾炎等与自身抗体致病相关的疾病治疗存在理论基础。改善全球肾脏病预后组织（Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes，KDIGO）指南也建议把RTX用于治疗膜性肾病、微小病变肾病、狼疮肾炎等肾小球疾病。目前，RTX治疗肾小球肾炎在我国尚处于起步阶段，存在临床适应证不一、治疗方案多样等问题，导致疗效评估和分析存在困难。为此，中华医学会肾脏病学分会专家组通过阅读相关文献，并结合我国临床诊疗现状，对RTX治疗肾小球肾炎的适应证、治疗方案及随访管理注意事项等形成专家共识，以指导临床医生的工作实践，并为未来制定临床指南提供基础。

终末期糖尿病肾脏病患者常见，其包含两种情况：一是由糖尿病引起的终末期肾病（end-stage renal disease，ESRD），又称之为糖尿病肾病；二是慢性肾脏病合并糖尿病，但糖尿病不是ESRD的病因，称之为合并糖尿病的ESRD。终末期糖尿病肾脏病患者行肾替代治疗的心脑血管事件发生率高、外周血管条件差、感染等并发症的风险高，治疗时血糖波动大，管理难度大。专家组对终末期糖尿病肾脏病肾替代治疗的时机、方式选择、腹膜透析、血液透析、肾移植治疗要点进行总结并提出有关建议，希望能引起广大肾科医师重视，不断提高治疗水平。

本文目的在于解读2020年版改善全球肾脏病预后组织（Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes，KDIGO）指南草案中关于膜性肾病患者的预防性抗凝策略并分析部分抗凝方案的合理性。作者通过对KDIGO指南及相关研究的深入学习和思考，并对几点关键性问题进行探讨和分析，认为膜性肾病预防性抗凝领域仍存在诸多争议，需要更多高质量的研究证据来提供指导；2020年版KDIGO指南草案部分推荐意见有待进一步探讨。

为加强透析前期和初始透析慢性肾脏病（chronic kidney disease，CKD）患者的管理，《中国围透析期慢性肾脏病管理规范》专家组编写了本规范。规范首先提出“围透析期CKD”的概念及特征，其并发症发生率、病死率及治疗费用显著增高，同时肾小球滤过率快速降低，需要强化管理；接着本规范系统全面地阐述了围透析期CKD患者病情评估指标与频率、肾脏替代治疗时机与模式选择、透析充分性评估、围透析期常见并发症的诊断和处理；最后提出了围透析期CKD的未来研究方向。围透析期CKD管理一直是肾脏病临床的难点，本管理规范的制定、宣传及落实能够提高我国围透析期CKD患者的管理水平，从而对改善患者的存活率和生存质量、减轻医疗负担具有重要意义。